Kanji Compounds
Official Lists and Kanji Compounds
The current Jouyou – general use – kanji list is of 2136 characters is considered to be the definitive reference for characters and readings in official documents and general communication. The list was created after the Second World War to facilitate learning of the writing system. The number of kanji to be used was scaled back, many longstanding simplified characters were adopted for official use and kanji related to names were regulated. (The latter relate to a separate category called Jinmeiyou kanji). In addition to reducing the number of kanji and simplifying traditional forms, measures were put in place to limit the number of readings associated with a character as well. The combined lists -Jouyou and Jinmeiyou – amount to approximately 3000 kanji. This supplement of general use kanji has two distinct characteristics. First, the emphasis is firmly on compounds of two or more characters. Second, the list is based on the rigorous system of Kanji Alchemy. Compounds or jukugo are an essential part of texts because they constitute the most common word structure in the Japanese language. To focus on one singular character without considering compounds is arguably “unfinished business” because it shows only half of the story. It’s like a bell without a clapper or a canvass without a brush: the rudiments are there but without the other components its potential will remain unfulfilled. Kanji compounds are high frequency forms and should take centre stage as far as reading texts are concerned: the road to literacy is paved with kanji compounds! The following (non-exhaustive) overview highlights the formation of several two-kanji compounds. (Habein and Mathias, Decoding Kanji, 2000)
a. Subject-predicate
地震（ジシン, earthquake): the "earth" (subject) "quakes" (predicate)
b. Verb-object/locative
造船（ゾウセン、shipbuilding): "make" (verb) "boat" (object)
c. Adjective/noun-noun
高級（コウキュウ, high class): "high" (adjective) "class" (noun)
国宝（コクホウ, national treasure): "nation" (noun) "treasure" (noun)
d. Adverbial first kanji
不正（フセイ, injustice): "not" (adverb) "just" (adjective)
未定（ミテイ, undecided): "not yet" (adverb) "decide" (verb)
e. Auxiliary kanji
私的（シテキ、private): "I/me" (noun) "-ic, -ous" (auxiliary)
突然（トツゼン, suddenly): "sudden" (adjective) "state (of things)" (auxiliary)
When two kanji are in a non-syntactic relationship:
a. Reduplication of kanji
方々（ホウボウ、everywhere): two of "direction"
月々（つきづき、every month): two of "month"
b. Combination of two kanji of similar meaning
平和（ヘイワ、peace): "calm" and "harmony"
生活（セイカツ, living): "live" and "liveliness"
c. Combination of two kanji with contrastive meanings
子孫（シソン、descendants): "child" and "grandchild"
左右（サユウ、left and right): "left" and "right"
Although the schedule of two-word compounds is clear enough many compounds are unfortunately not so transparent, and a fair amount of rote learning will still be required when encountering new compounds.
訓読み (kunyomi) native Japanese reading of a kanji. 志 こころざし will; intention
当て字(ateji) kanji used as a phonetic substitute character. 珈琲 コーヒー coffee
義訓 (gikun) irregular reading of a kanji. 身体 からだ body
名乗り(nanori) kanji readings found almost exclusively in Japanese names.
諏訪頼戡 すわよりあつ personal name
四字熟語 (yojijukugo) four-character compound.
鮮血淋漓 せんけつりんりdripping with fresh blood
幽霊文字 (yuurei moji) ghost character. JIS kanji the origin of which cannot be confirmed. Possible mistakes in copying of existing kanji e.g.
異体字 (itaiji) variant character 淵 → 渕
新字体 (shinjitai) new kanji form 關 → 関
旧字体 (kyuujitai) traditional form攪 → 撹
縒り合せる よりあわせる to intertwine; to twist together 縒 This is an example of a verbal form instead of compounds as there were no compounds listed. (Verbs only)
irr - irregular: irregular kanji usage
old - old: one character is obsolete
obsc - obscure: uncommon word
pnl - previously not listed: a different reading from the one listed in Kanji Alchemy 3
no compounds: just under 2 percent of characters have no compounds. This is frequently related to a variant of a character or radicals.
A delightful -or infuriating- aspect of Hyougaiji is the fact that many kanji can be used for one word and that one character can have a large number of readings. This ambiguity can be illustrated by an extreme example さかづき、さかずき or sake cup can have the following forms:
杯 、盃 、坏 、巵 、卮 、盞 、觚 、觴 、酒盃
The character 瞶 has the English translation of “see everything” with just an ‘on’ reading of キ. In contrast, one of the Japanese websites shows these additional readings: みつ、みは、みまも、まも、みつめ、みまわ、つぶ、みひら、ミツ
a. Subject-predicate
地震（ジシン, earthquake): the "earth" (subject) "quakes" (predicate)
b. Verb-object/locative
造船（ゾウセン、shipbuilding): "make" (verb) "boat" (object)
在日（ザイニチ、(someone) stays in Japan): "to be" (verb) "Japan" (locative)
c. Adjective/noun-noun
高級（コウキュウ, high class): "high" (adjective) "class" (noun)
国宝（コクホウ, national treasure): "nation" (noun) "treasure" (noun)
d. Adverbial first kanji
不正（フセイ, injustice): "not" (adverb) "just" (adjective)
未定（ミテイ, undecided): "not yet" (adverb) "decide" (verb)
e. Auxiliary kanji
私的（シテキ、private): "I/me" (noun) "-ic, -ous" (auxiliary)
突然（トツゼン, suddenly): "sudden" (adjective) "state (of things)" (auxiliary)
When two kanji are in a non-syntactic relationship:
a. Reduplication of kanji
方々（ホウボウ、everywhere): two of "direction"
月々（つきづき、every month): two of "month"
b. Combination of two kanji of similar meaning
平和（ヘイワ、peace): "calm" and "harmony"
生活（セイカツ, living): "live" and "liveliness"
c. Combination of two kanji with contrastive meanings
子孫（シソン、descendants): "child" and "grandchild"
左右（サユウ、left and right): "left" and "right"
Although the schedule of two-word compounds is clear enough many compounds are unfortunately not so transparent, and a fair amount of rote learning will still be required when encountering new compounds.
Jinmeiyou Kanji Compounds
The current Jinmeiyou kanji list is considered to be the definitive reference for Japanese characters for use in personal names. Currently there are 651 characters that do not feature in the Jouyou kanji list (plus 18 variants) and 212 traditional characters that are traditional forms (kyuujitai) that are present in the list for general use characters. Government efforts to regulate the use of kanji started after the Second World War with the objective to facilitate the writing system. The number of kanji to be used was scaled back, many longstanding simplified characters were adopted for official use (Jouyou kanji or general use characters) and kanji related to names were prescribed. (The Jinmeiyou list has changed significantly in the course of time.) In addition to reducing the number of kanji and simplifying traditional forms, measures were put in place to limit the number of readings associated with a character as well. The combined lists -Jouyou and Jinmeiyou – amount to approximately 3000 kanji. This supplement of characters for use in personal names has two distinct characteristics. First, the emphasis is on compounds of two or more characters. Second, the list is based on the rigorous system of Kanji Alchemy. Compounds are of course a natural feature in Japanese given names, family names, personal names and place names although one-character names occasionally are to be encountered as well. Kanji compounds are high frequency forms and should take centre stage as far as Japanese names are concerned. Readings however, despite attempts to simplify the system, still present a major challenge as frequently a Jinmeiyou character can be read in a variety of different ways. It should therefore be kept in mind that the readings presented in this supplement are not exhaustive and that often the same character can be read differently. In general, every interaction that requires the confirmation of a name in Japan involves a detailed explanation of each character in the name. A fairly straightforward name such as 橋本摂子 (Hashimoto, Setsuko) could be have the following “narrative”: “hashi” is bridge to cross, “hon/moto” book to read, “setsu” taking a supplement and “ko” child. The same could be applied to addresses, place names and a number of other scenarios. Place names in particular are notorious as these often have quite exotic pronunciations and provide a source of infinite delight for people who have an interest in these things.
Hyougaiji Kanji Compounds
Let hundred flowers bloom and thousand kanji flourish, to paraphrase Mao Zedong. In this instance more than 3460 shady Japanese characters and compounds have found a place in the sun. Nowadays the orthographic garden is well kept and the lawns are neatly trimmed with the number of kanji and their use strictly regulated. In contrast, Hyougaiji more refer to "where the wild things are": a proliferation of exuberant growth and a maddening multitude of forms. Hyougaiji literally means "characters outside of the list" so they are neither part of the current Jouyou -general use- nor of Jinmeiyou kanji. (The two lists combined amount to approximately 3000 characters). These lists were created after the Second World War to facilitate learning of the writing system. The number of kanji to be used was scaled back, many longstanding simplified characters were adopted for official use and kanji related to names were regulated. (jinmeiyou kanji) This makes the Hyougaiji category or non general use characters rather open-ended with the result that it contains by far the most extensive collection of kanji. The largest dictionary published in Japan – the Dai Kan Wa Jiten by Morohashi Tetsuji- lists about 50,000 characters but for kanji kentei (kanji aptitude) enthusiasts the number would be around 3,000. In addition to reducing the number of kanji and simplifying the traditional forms, measures were put in place to limit the number of readings associated with a character as well. In the current situation many terms that used to be represented through kanji are often just written in kana. Hyougaiji on the other hand feature traditional, often complex forms with variants and a large range of different readings. Place names, given names, personal names, historical names, botanical names, Buddhist terms and medical terms are extensively represented. Older Japanese texts obviously contain an abundance of non general use characters. Excellent websites such as “furigana.info”, “weblio” and “kotobank” display a wealth of information regarding the use of these admittedly obscure kanji. For English sites "wwwjdic", "jisho.org". "tangorin' and "oriental outpost" are very helpful. China in particular is an important point of reference with its classical literature ranging from poetry and history to Confucianism. (And of course, “kanji” have originated in China!) Yojijukugo -four-character compounds- are an elegant and regular feature. Without much exaggeration one could say that dealing with hyougaiji is definitely a walk on the wild side.
Linguistic Aspects
As these terms below recur on a regular basis it will be convenient to list them together for easy reference. The Japanese terms refer to common features in compounds whereas the English abbreviations are sprinkled throughout the text.
音読み (onyomi) Sino-Japanese reading of a kanji. 極楽 ごくらくparadise
訓読み (kunyomi) native Japanese reading of a kanji. 志 こころざし will; intention
当て字(ateji) kanji used as a phonetic substitute character. 珈琲 コーヒー coffee
熟字訓 (jukujikun) reading of a kanji based on meaning.
煙草 たばこ tobacco
義訓 (gikun) irregular reading of a kanji. 身体 からだ body
名乗り(nanori) kanji readings found almost exclusively in Japanese names.
諏訪頼戡 すわよりあつ personal name
四字熟語 (yojijukugo) four-character compound.
鮮血淋漓 せんけつりんりdripping with fresh blood
幽霊文字 (yuurei moji) ghost character. JIS kanji the origin of which cannot be confirmed. Possible mistakes in copying of existing kanji e.g.
(妛) 𡚴原 (Akenbara)
異体字 (itaiji) variant character 淵 → 渕
新字体 (shinjitai) new kanji form 關 → 関
旧字体 (kyuujitai) traditional form攪 → 撹
縒り合せる よりあわせる to intertwine; to twist together 縒 This is an example of a verbal form instead of compounds as there were no compounds listed. (Verbs only)
並 contiguous kanji. There are 24 instances where kanji with a different etymology have been combined due to close similarities e.g. A1 山 仙 + 凹 凸
arch - archaic: the word is old fashioned
irr - irregular: irregular kanji usage
old - old: one character is obsolete
obsc - obscure: uncommon word
pnl - previously not listed: a different reading from the one listed in Kanji Alchemy 3
◊ - rhombus: used to distinguish different kanji
no compounds: just under 2 percent of characters have no compounds. This is frequently related to a variant of a character or radicals.
A delightful -or infuriating- aspect of Hyougaiji is the fact that many kanji can be used for one word and that one character can have a large number of readings. This ambiguity can be illustrated by an extreme example さかづき、さかずき or sake cup can have the following forms:
杯 、盃 、坏 、巵 、卮 、盞 、觚 、觴 、酒盃
The character 瞶 has the English translation of “see everything” with just an ‘on’ reading of キ. In contrast, one of the Japanese websites shows these additional readings: みつ、みは、みまも、まも、みつめ、みまわ、つぶ、みひら、ミツ
Although I have attempted to focus on compounds from a Japanese context it will be apparent that there are also quite a few Chinese related compounds listed. Overall, there is perhaps often a distinct Chinese “flavour” that will be noticeable when going through the list. It was not uncommon that in the course of compiling this supplement I needed to provide English translations because there were simply none. For better or for worse, I take sole responsibility for inelegant renditions and/or outright mistakes.